Psychiatry Research
Volume 121, Issue 3 , Pages 229-238 , 1 January 2004

Clock Drawing Test in patients with schizophrenia

  • Vasilis P. Bozikas

      Affiliations

    • First Department of Psychiatry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Present address: 19 Iatrou Magou Str, Giannitsa 58100, Greece. Tel.: +30-23106-93905; fax: +30-23106-93911
    • ,
  • Mary H. Kosmidis

      Affiliations

    • First Department of Psychiatry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
    • Department of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
    • ,
  • Katerina Gamvrula

      Affiliations

    • First Department of Psychiatry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
    • ,
  • Maria Hatzigeorgiadou

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
    • ,
  • Anastasios Kourtis

      Affiliations

    • First Department of Psychiatry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
    • ,
  • Athanasios Karavatos

      Affiliations

    • First Department of Psychiatry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece

Received 26 July 2002 ,Revised 31 March 2003 ,Accepted 1 July 2003.

References 

  1. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1994;
  2. Andreasen NC. A unitary model of schizophrenia: Bleuler's ‘fragmented phrene’ as schizencephaly. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1999;56:781–787
  3. Bozikas VP, Kosmidis MH, Kourtis A, Gamvrula K, Melissidis P, Tsolaki M, et al. Clock Drawing Test in institutionalized patients with schizophrenia compared with Alzheimer's disease patients. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;59:173–179
  4. Chan DA, Salmon DP, Monsch AU, Butters N, Wiederholt WC, Corey-Bloom J, et al. Screening for dementia of the Alzheimer type in the community: the utility of the Clock Drawing Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 1999;11:529–539
  5. Chan-Weiner DA, Sullivan EV, Shear PK, Fama R, Lim KO, Yesavage JA, et al. Brain structural and cognitive correlates of clock drawing performance in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 1999;5:502–509
  6. Evans JD, Negron AE, Palmer BW, Paulsen JS, Heaton RK, Jeste DV. Cognitive deficits and psychopathology in institutionalized vs. community-dwelling elderly schizophrenia patients. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 1999;12:11–15
  7. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. Mini-Mental State: a practical method for grabbing the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 1975;12:189–198
  8. Förlst H, Burns A, Levy R, Cairns N. Neuropathological basis for drawing disability (constructional apraxia) in Alzheimer's disease. Psychological Medicine. 1993;23:623–629
  9. Freedman M, Leach L, Kaplan E, Winocur G, Shulman KI, Delis DC. Clock Drawing. A Neuropsychological Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press; 1994;
  10. Friedman JI, Harvey PD, Coleman T, Moriarty PJ, Bowie C, Parrella M, et al. Six-year follow-up study of cognitive and functional status across lifespan in schizophrenia: a comparison with Alzheimer's disease and normal aging. American Journal of Psychiaty. 2001;158:1441–1448
  11. Fucetola R, Seidman LJ, Kremen WS, Faraone SV, Goldstein JM, Tsuang MT. Age and neuropsychologic function in schizophrenia: a decline in executive abilities beyond that observed in healthy volunteers. Biological Psychiatry. 2000;48:137–146
  12. Goldberg TE, Hyde TM, Kleinman JE, Weinberger DR. Course of schizophrenia: neuropsychological evidence for a static encephalopathy. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1993;19:797–804
  13. Gruber NP, Varner RV, Chen YW, Lesser JM. A comparison of the Clock Drawing Test and the Pfeiffer Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire in a geropsychiatry clinic. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 1997;12:526–532
  14. Harvey PD, Silverman JM, Mohs RC, Parrela M, White L, Powchik P, et al. Cognitive decline in late-life schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of geriatric chronically hospitalized patients. Biological Psychiatry. 1999;45:32–40
  15. Heaton R, Paulsen JS, McAdams LA, Kuck J, Zisook S, Braff D, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenics: relationship to age, chronicity, and dementia. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1994;51:469–476
  16. Heaton RK, Gladsjo JA, Paulsen BW, Kuck J, Marcotte TD, Jeste DV. Stability and course of neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2001;58:24–32
  17. Heinik J, Lahav D, Drummer D, Vainer-Benaiah Z, Lin R. Comparison of a clock drawing test in elderly schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease patients: a preliminary study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2000;15:638–643
  18. Heinik J, Vainer-Benaiah Z, Lahav D, Drummer D. Clock Drawing Test in elderly schizophrenia patients. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 1997;12:653–655
  19. Heinrichs RW, Zakzanis KK. Neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology. 1998;12:426–445
  20. Herrmann N, Kidron D, Shulman KI, Kaplan E, Binns M, Soni J, et al. The use of clock tests in schizophrenia. General Hospital Psychiatry. 1999;21:70–73
  21. Hutton SB, Puri BK, Duncan L-J, Robbins TW, Barnes TRE, Joyce EM. Executive function in first-episode schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine. 1998;28:463–473
  22. Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1987;13:261–276
  23. Libon DJ, Swenson R, Barnoski EJ, Sands LP. Clock drawing as an assessment tool for dementia. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 1993;8:405–415
  24. Libon DJ, Swenson R, Sands LP, Clod BS. Further analysis of clock drawing among demented and non-demented older subjects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 1996;11:193–205
  25. Lykouras, E., Botsis, A., Oulis, P., 1994. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Tsiveriotis (Ed.), Athens (in Greek)
  26. Meltzer HY, McGurk SR. The effects of clozapine, risperidone and olanzapine on cognitive function in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1999;25:233–255
  27. Mendez MF, Ala T, Underwood KL. Development of scoring criteria for the clock drawing task in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 1992;40:1095–1099
  28. Mohamed S, Paulsen JS, O'Leary D, Arndt S, Andreasen N. Generalized cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1999;56:749–754
  29. Opler LA, Kay SR, Lindenmayer J, Fiszbein A. SCI-PANSS. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Inc; 1992;
  30. Palmer BW, Heaton RK. Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia. In:  Sharma T,  Harvey P editor. Cognition in Schizophrenia: Impairment, Importance, and Treatment Strategies. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000;p. 51–72
  31. Pearlson GD, Marsh L. Structural brain imaging in schizophrenia: a selective review. Biological Psychiatry. 1999;46:627–649
  32. Powers RE. The neuropathology of schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology. 1999;58:679–690
  33. Riley EM, McGovern D, Mockler D, Doku VCK, Óceallaigh S, Fannon DG, et al. Neuropsychological functioning in first—episode psychosis-evidence of specific deficits. Schizophrenia Research. 2000;43:47–55
  34. Rössell SL, Rabe-Hesketh SS, Shapleske JS, David AS. Is semantic fluency differentially impaired in schizophrenic patients with delusions?. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 1999;21:629–642
  35. Rouleau I, Salmon DP, Butters N. Longitudinal analysis of clock drawing in Alzheimer's disease patients. Brain and Cognition. 1996;31:17–34
  36. Rouleau I, Salmon DP, Butters N, Kennedy C, McGuire K. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of clock drawings in Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease. Brain and Cognition. 1992;18:70–87
  37. Royall DR, Cordes JA, Polk M. CLOX: an executive clock drawing task. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1998;64:588–594
  38. Sheehan DV, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan KH, Amorim P, Janavs J, Weiller E, et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric (M.I.N.I): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 1998;59(Suppl 20):22–33
  39. Shulman KI. Clock-drawing: is it the ideal cognitive screening test?. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2000;15:548–561
  40. Sunderland T, Hill JL, Mellow AM, Lawlor BA, Gundersheimer J, Newhouse PA, et al. Clock drawing in Alzheimer's disease: a novel measure of dementia severity. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 1989;37:725–729
  41. Tawfik-Reedy Z, Zuker T, Paulsen JS, Sadek JR, Heaton RK, Butters N, et al. Clock drawing in schizophrenia: a qualitative analysis of impairment. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 1995;10:326
  42. Tracy JI, De Leon J, Doonan R, Musciente J, Ballas T, Josiassen RC. Clock drawing in schizophrenia. Psychological Reports. 1996;79:923–928
  43. Tuokko H, Hadjistavropoulos T, Miller JA, Beattie BL. The clock test: a sensitive measure to differentiate normal from those with Alzheimer disease. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 1992;40:579–584
  44. Tuokko H, Hadjistavropoulos T, Rae S, O'Rourke N. A comparison of alternative approaches to the scoring of clock drawing. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 2000;15:137–148
  45. Ueda H, Kitabayashi Y, Narumoto J, Nakamura K, Kita H, Kishikawa Y, et al. Relationship between Clock Drawing Test performance and regional cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer's disease: a single photon emission computed tomography study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2002;56:25–29
  46. Weickert TW, Goldberg TE, Gold JM, Bigelow LB, Egan MF, Weinberger DR. Cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia displaying preserved and compromised intellect. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2000;57:907–913
  47. Wolf-Klein GP, Silverstone FA, Levy AP, Brod MS. Screening for Alzheimer's disease by clock drawing. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 1989;37:730–734
  48. Zorrilla LTE, Heaton RK, McAdams LA, Zisook S, Harris MJ, Jeste DV. Cross-sectional study of older outpatients with schizophrenia and healthy comparison subjects: no differences in age-related cognitive decline. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2000;157:1324–1326

PII: S0165-1781(03)00269-5

doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2003.07.003

Psychiatry Research
Volume 121, Issue 3 , Pages 229-238 , 1 January 2004

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution