Psychiatry Research
Volume 129, Issue 2 , Pages 179-190 , 15 December 2004

Do schizophrenia patients make more perseverative than non-perseverative errors on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test? A meta-analytic study

Received 28 January 2004 ,Revised 1 June 2004 ,Accepted 2 June 2004.

References 

  1. Abbruzzese M, Ferri S, Scarone S. Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia: perseveration in clinical subtypes. Psychiatry Research. 1996;30:27–33
  2. Aksaray G, Oflu S, Kaptanoglu C, Bal C. Neurocognitive deficits and quality of life in outpatients with schizophrenia. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 2002;26:1217–1219
  3. Allen DN, Anastasiou A, Goldstein G, Gilbertson M, van Kammen DP. Influence of haloperidol on the relationship of frontal lobe function to psychomotor poverty and disorganization syndromes. Psychiatry Research. 2000;14:33–39
  4. Arduini L, Kalyvoka A, Stratta P, Rinaldi O, Daneluzzo E, Rossi A. Insight and neuropsychological function in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with psychotic features. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 2003;48:38–41
  5. Barcel F, Knight RT. Both random and perseverative errors underlie WCST deficits in prefrontal patients. Neuropsychologia. 2002;40:349–356
  6. Barrett NA, Large MM, Smith GL, Karayanidis F, Michie PT, Kavanagh DJ, et al. Human brain regions required for the dividing and switching of attention between two features of a single object. Cognitive Brain Research. 2003;17:1–13
  7. Battaglia M, Abbruzzese M, Ferri S, Scarone S, Bellodi L, Smeraldi E. An assessment of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as an indicator of liability to schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1994;14:39–45
  8. Beatty WW, Jocic Z, Monson N, Staton RD. Memory and frontal lobe dysfunction in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1993;181:448–453
  9. Bell MD, Greig TC, Kaplan E, Bryson G. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test dimensions in schizophrenia: factorial, predictive, and divergent validity. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 1997;19:933–941
  10. Bellack AS, Weinhardt LS, Gold JM, Gearon JS. Generalization of training effects in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2001;48:255–262
  11. Beninger RJ, Wasserman J, Zanibbi K, Charbonneau D, Mangels J, Beninger BV. Typical and atypical antipsychotic medications differentially affect two nondeclarative memory tasks in schizophrenic patients: a double dissociation. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;61:281–292
  12. Berman KF, Torrey EF, Daniel DG, Weinberger DR. Regional cerebral blood flow in monozygotic twins discordant and concordant for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1992;49:927–934
  13. Berman KF, Schmidt PJ, Rubinow DR, Danaceau MA, Van Horn JD, Esposito G, et al. Modulation of cognition-specific cortical activity by gonadal steroids: a positron-emission tomography study in women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94:8836–8841
  14. Bilder RM, Volavka J, Czobor P, Malhotra AK, Kennedy JL, Ni X, et al. Neurocognitive correlates of the COMT Val(158)Met polymorphism in chronic schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry. 2002;52:701–707
  15. Borkowska A, Araszkiewicz A, Rajewski A, Rybakowski JK. Risperidone treatment of schizophrenia: improvement in psychopathology and neuropsychological tests. Neuropsychobiology. 2002;46:85–89
  16. Bornstein RA, Nasrallah HA, Olson SC, Coffman JA, Torello M, Schwarzkopf SB. Neuropsychological deficit in schizophrenic subtypes: paranoid, nonparanoid, and schizoaffective subgroups. Psychiatry Research. 1990;31:15–24
  17. Bryson G, Whelahan HA, Bell M. Memory and executive function impairments in deficit syndrome schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 2001;102:29–37
  18. Buckner RL. Functional-anatomic correlates of control processes in memory. Journal of Neuroscience. 2003;23:3999–4004
  19. Catafau AM, Parellada E, Lomena FJ, Bernardo M, Pavia J, Ros D, et al. Prefrontal and temporal blood flow in schizophrenia: resting and activation technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT patterns in young neuroleptic-naive patients with acute disease. Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 1994;35:935–941
  20. Chaminade T, Fonlupt P. Changes of effective connectivity between the lateral and medial parts of the prefrontal cortex during a visual task. European Journal of Neuroscience. 2003;18:675–679
  21. Chen EY, Lam LC, Chen RY, Nguyen DG, Chan CK. Prefrontal neuropsychological impairment and illness duration in schizophrenia: a study of 204 patients in Hong Kong. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1996;93:144–150
  22. Collette F, Van der Linden M. Brain imaging of the central executive component of working memory. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review. 2002;26:105–125
  23. Collins AA, Remington GJ, Coulter K, Birkett K. Insight, neurocognitive function and symptom clusters in chronic schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1997;27:37–44
  24. Condray R, Steinhauer SR, Goldstein G. Language comprehension in schizophrenics and their brothers. Biological Psychiatry. 1992;32:790–802
  25. Crawford TJ, Haeger B, Kennard C, Reveley MA, Henderson L. Saccadic abnormalities in psychotic patients: II. The role of neuroleptic treatment. Psychological Medicine. 1995;25:473–483
  26. Crider A. Perseveration in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 1997;23:63–74
  27. Daban C, Amado I, Bayle F, Gut A, Willard D, Bourdel MC, et al. Correlation between clinical syndromes and neuropsychological tasks in unmedicated patients with recent onset schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 2002;113:83–92
  28. Davidson LL, Heinrichs RW. Quantification of frontal and temporal lobe brain-imaging findings in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 2003;122:69–87
  29. Deicken RF, Merrin EL, Floyd TC, Weiner MW. Correlation between left frontal phospholipids and Wisconsin Card Sort Test performance in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1995;14:177–181
  30. Demakis GJ. A meta-analytic review of the sensitivity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to frontal and lateralized frontal brain damage. Neuropsychology. 2003;17:255–264
  31. Dieci M, Vita A, Silenzi C, Caputo A, Comazzi M, Ferrari L, et al. Non-selective impairment of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1997;25:33–42
  32. Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Gscheidle T, Weirich M, Rawlings R, Hyde TM, et al. Relative risk for cognitive impairments in siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry. 2001;50:98–107
  33. Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Kolachana BS, Callicott JH, Mazzanti CM, Straub RE, et al. Effect of COMT Val108/158 Met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2001;98:6917–6922
  34. Everett J, Lavoie K, Gagnon JF, Gosselin N. Performance of patients with schizophrenia on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. 2001;26:123–130
  35. Franke P, Maier W, Hain C, Klingler T. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: an indicator of vulnerability to schizophrenia?. Schizophrenia Research. 1992;6:243–249
  36. Friedman L, Kenny JT, Jesberger JA, Choy MM, Meltzer HY. Relationship between smooth pursuit eye-tracking and cognitive performance in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry. 1995;37:265–272
  37. Glahn DC, Cannon TD, Gur RE, Ragland JD, Gur RC. Working memory constrains abstraction in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry. 2000;47:34–42
  38. Gold JM, Carpenter C, Randolph C, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR. Auditory working memory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1997;54:159–165
  39. Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR. Schizophrenia, training paradigms, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test redux. Schizophrenia Research. 1994;11:291–296
  40. Goldman RS, Axelrod BN, Tompkins LM. Effect of instructional cues on schizophrenic patients' performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1992;149:1718–1722
  41. Gonzalez-Hernandez JA, Cedeno I, Pita-Alcorta C, Galan L, Aubert E, Figueredo-Rodriguez P. Induced oscillations and the distributed cortical sources during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenic patients: new clues to neural connectivity. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 2003;48:11–24
  42. Gooding DC, Iacono WG, Hanson DR. Smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movement performance in a prefrontal leukotomy patient. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. 1999;24:462–467
  43. Grawe RW, Levander S. Smooth pursuit eye movements and neuropsychological impairments in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1995;92:108–114
  44. Hartman M, Steketee MC, Silva S, Lanning K, Andersson C. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: the role of working memory. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;63:201–217
  45. Hauser MD. Perseveration, inhibition and the prefrontal cortex: a new look. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 1999;9:214–222
  46. Heaton RK, Chelune GJ, Talley JL, Kay GG, Curtiss G. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1993;
  47. Huguelet P, Zanello A, Nicastro R. A study of visual and auditory verbal working memory in schizophrenic patients compared to healthy subjects. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2000;250:79–85
  48. Jaeggi SM, Seewer R, Nirkko AC, Eckstein D, Schroth G, Groner R, et al. Does excessive memory load attenuate activation in the prefrontal cortex? Load-dependent processing in single and dual tasks: functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroimage. 2003;19:210–225
  49. Joober R, Gauthier J, Lal S, Bloom D, Lalonde P, Rouleau G, et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val-108/158-Met gene variants associated with performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2002;59:662–663
  50. Joseph R. Frontal lobe psychopathology: mania, depression, confabulation, catatonia, perseveration, obsessive compulsions, and schizophrenia. Psychiatry. 1999;62:138–172
  51. Kahn RS, Harvey PD, Davidson M, Keefe RS, Apter S, Neale JM, et al. Neuropsychological correlates of central monoamine function in chronic schizophrenia: relationship between CSF metabolites and cognitive function. Schizophrenia Research. 1994;11:217–224
  52. Karoumi B, Ventre-Dominey J, Vighetto A, Dalery J, d'Amato T. Saccadic eye movements in schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research. 1998;77:9–19
  53. Kawasaki Y, Maeda Y, Suzuki M, Urata K, Higashima M, Kiba K, et al. SPECT analysis of regional cerebral blood flow changes in patients with schizophrenia during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Schizophrenia Research. 1993;10:109–116
  54. Keri S, Kelemen O, Benedek G, Janka Z. Intact prototype learning in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2001;52:261–264
  55. Konishi S, Nakajima K, Uchida I, Kameyama M, Nakahara K, Sekihara K, et al. Transient activation of inferior prefrontal cortex during cognitive set shifting. Nature Neuroscience. 1998;1:80–84
  56. Konishi S, Hayashi T, Uchida I, Kikyo H, Takahashi E, Miyashita Y. Hemispheric asymmetry in human lateral prefrontal cortex during cognitive set shifting. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2002;99:7803–7808
  57. Koren D, Seidman LJ, Harrison RH, Lyons MJ, Kremen WS, Caplan B, et al. Factor structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: dimensions of deficit in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology. 1998;12:289–302
  58. Laurent A, Duly D, Murry P, Foussard N, Boccara S, Mingat F, et al. WCST performance and schizotypal features in the first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 2001;104:133–144
  59. Lee AC, Robbins TW, Owen AM. Episodic memory meets working memory in the frontal lobe: functional neuroimaging studies of encoding and retrieval. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology. 2000;14:165–197
  60. Liu Z, Tam WC, Xie Y, Zhao J. The relationship between regional cerebral blood flow and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in negative schizophrenia. Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2002;56:3–7
  61. Ljubin T, Zakic Milas D, Mimica N, Folnegovic-Smalc V, Makaric G. A preliminary study of the comparative effects of olanzapine and fluphenazine on cognition in schizophrenic patients. Human Psychopharmacology. 2000;15:513–519
  62. Lopez-Luengo B, Vazquez C. Effects of attention process training on cognitive functioning of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research. 2003;119:41–53
  63. Lysaker P, Bell M. Insight and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Performance on repeated administrations of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1994;182:656–660
  64. Lysaker PH, Bryson GJ, Lancaster RS, Evans JD, Bell MD. Insight in schizophrenia: associations with executive function and coping style. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;59:41–47
  65. Manoach DS. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction during working memory performance in schizophrenia: reconciling discrepant findings. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;60:285–298
  66. Mattes R, Cohen R, Berg P, Canavan AG, Hopmann G. Slow cortical potentials (SCPS) in schizophrenic patients during performance of the Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test (WCST). Neuropsychologia. 1991;29:195–205
  67. Merriam EP, Thase ME, Haas GL, Keshavan MS, Sweeney JA. Prefrontal cortical dysfunction in depression determined by Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1999;156:780–782
  68. Metz JT, Johnson MD, Pliskin NH, Luchins DJ. Maintenance of training effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test by patients with schizophrenia or affective disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1994;151:120–122
  69. Milner B. Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting. Archives of Neurology. 1963;9:100–110
  70. Monchi O, Petrides M, Petre V, Worsley K, Dagher A. Wisconsin Card Sorting revisited: distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience. 2001;21:7733–7741
  71. Nathaniel-James DA, Brown R, Ron MA. Memory impairment in schizophrenia: its relationship to executive function. Schizophrenia Research. 1996;21:85–96
  72. Nieuwenstein MR, Aleman A, de Haan EH. Relationship between symptom dimensions and neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of WCST and CPT studies. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Continuous Performance Test. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2001;35:119–125
  73. Parellada E, Catafau AM, Bernardo M, Lomena F, Gonzalez-Monclus E, Setoain J. Prefrontal dysfunction in young acute neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients: a resting and activation SPECT study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 1994;55:131–139
  74. Park S. Association of an oculomotor delayed response task and the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in schizophrenic patients. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 1997;27:147–151
  75. Paulus MP, Perry W, Braff DL. The nonlinear, complex sequential organization of behavior in schizophrenic patients: neurocognitive strategies and clinical correlations. Biological Psychiatry. 1999;46:662–670
  76. Poyurovsky M, Koren D, Gonopolsky I, Schneidman M, Fuchs C, Weizman A, et al. Effect of the 5-HT2 antagonist mianserin on cognitive dysfunction in chronic schizophrenia patients: an add-on, double-blind placebo-controlled study. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003;13:123–128
  77. Pukrop R, Matuschek E, Ruhrmann S, Brockhaus-Dumke A, Tendolkar I, Bertsch A, et al. Dimensions of working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;62:259–268
  78. Radant AD, Claypoole K, Wingerson DK, Cowley DS, Roy-Byrne PP. Relationships between neuropsychological and oculomotor measures in schizophrenia patients and normal controls. Biological Psychiatry. 1997;42:797–805
  79. Reed RA, Harrow M, Herbener ES, Martin EM. Executive function in schizophrenia: is it linked to psychosis and poor life functioning?. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2002;190:725–732
  80. Rempfer MV, Hamera EK, Brown CE, Cromwell RL. The relations between cognition and the independent living skill of shopping in people with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 2003;117:103–112
  81. Ridley RM. The psychology of perserverative and stereotyped behaviour. Progress in Neurobiology. 1994;44:221–231
  82. Riehemann S, Volz HP, Stutzer P, Smesny S, Gaser C, Sauer H. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test—an fMRI study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2001;251:66–71
  83. Ritter LM, Meador-Woodruff JH, Dalack GW. Neurocognitive measures of prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;68:65–73
  84. Rosse RB, Schwartz BL, Mastropaolo J, Goldberg RL, Deutsch SI. Subtype diagnosis in schizophrenia and its relation to neuropsychological and computerized tomography measures. Biological Psychiatry. 1991;30:63–72
  85. Rossell SL, David AS. Improving performance on the WCST: variations on the original procedure. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Schizophrenia Research. 1997;28:63–76
  86. Rossell SL, Coakes J, Shapleske J, Woodruff PW, David AS. Insight: its relationship with cognitive function, brain volume and symptoms in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine. 2003;33:111–119
  87. Rossi A, Daneluzzo E, Mattei P, Bustini M, Casacchia M, Stratta P. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Stroop Test performance in schizophrenia: a shared construct. Neuroscience Letters. 1997;226:87–90
  88. Rossi A, Pollice R, Stratta P, Arduini L, Marinangeli MG, Daneluzzo E. Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test performance does not discriminate different patterns of premorbid behavioral abnormalities in schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2002;56:403–407
  89. Royall DR, Lauterbach EC, Cummings JL, Reeve A, Rummans TA, Kaufer DI, et al. Executive control function: a review of its promise and challenges for clinical research. A report from the Committee on Research of the American Neuropsychiatric Association. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2002;14:377–405
  90. Rubin P, Holm S, Friberg L, Videbech P, Andersen HS, Bendsen BB, et al. Altered modulation of prefrontal and subcortical brain activity in newly diagnosed schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder. A regional cerebral blood flow study. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1991;48:987–995
  91. Rubin P, Hemmingsen R, Holm S, Moller-Madsen S, Hertel C, Povlsen UJ, et al. Relationship between brain structure and function in disorders of the schizophrenic spectrum: single positron emission computerized tomography, computerized tomography and psychopathology of first episodes. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1994;90:281–289
  92. Rybakowski JK, Borkowska A. Eye movement and neuropsychological studies in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Research. 2002;54:105–110
  93. Rypma B, D'Esposito M. A subsequent-memory effect in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Cognitive Brain Research. 2003;16:162–166
  94. Sagawa K, Kawakatsu S, Shibuya I, Oiji A, Morinobu S, Komatani A, et al. Correlation of regional cerebral blood flow with performance on neuropsychological tests in schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Research. 1990;3:241–246
  95. Saoud M, Hueber T, Mandran H, Dalery J, d'Amato T. Olfactory identification deficiency and WCST performance in men with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 1998;81:251–257
  96. Scarone S, Abbruzzese M, Gambini O. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test discriminates schizophrenic patients and their siblings. Schizophrenia Research. 1993;10:103–107
  97. Schiffer RA, Sigal M, Mintz M. Delayed habituation of the skin-conductance orienting response correlates with impaired performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 1996;65:107–112
  98. Seidman LJ, Goldstein JM, Goodman JM, Koren D, Turner WM, Faraone SV, et al. Sex differences in olfactory identification and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schizophrenia: relationship to attention and verbal ability. Biological Psychiatry. 1997;42:104–115
  99. Shenton ME, Dickey CC, Frumin M, McCarley RW. A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2001;49:1–52
  100. Smith RC, Infante M, Singh A, Khandat A. The effects of olanzapine on neurocognitive functioning in medication-refractory schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;4:239–250
  101. Snitz BE, Curtis CE, Zald DH, Katsanis J, Iacono WG. Neuropsychological and oculomotor correlates of spatial working memory performance in schizophrenia patients and controls. Schizophrenia Research. 1999;38:37–50
  102. Stratta P, Daneluzzo E, Mattei P, Bustini M, Casacchia M, Rossi A. No deficit in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance of schizophrenic patients' first-degree relatives. Schizophrenia Research. 1997;26:147–151
  103. Sullivan EV, Mathalon DH, Zipursky RB, Kersteen-Tucker Z, Knight RT, Pfefferbaum A. Factors of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as measures of frontal-lobe function in schizophrenia and in chronic alcoholism. Psychiatry Research. 1993;46:175–199
  104. Sumiyoshi T, Jayathilake K, Meltzer HY. The effect of melperone, an atypical antipsychotic drug, on cognitive function in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2003;59:7–16
  105. Sweeney JA, Keilp JG, Haas GL, Hill J, Weiden PJ. Relationships between medication treatments and neuropsychological test performance in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 1991;37:297–308
  106. Toone BK, Okocha CI, Sivakumar K, Syed GM. Changes in regional cerebral blood flow due to cognitive activation among patients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2000;177:222–228
  107. Tsai G, Yang P, Chung LC, Lange N, Coyle JT. d-Serine added to antipsychotics for the treatment of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry. 1998;44:1081–1089
  108. Tsai SJ, Yu YW, Chen TJ, Chen JY, Liou YJ, Chen MC, et al. Association study of a functional catechol-O-methyltransferase-gene polymorphism and cognitive function in healthy females. Neuroscience Letters. 2003;338:123–126
  109. van der Linden D, Frese M, Meijman TF. Mental fatigue and the control of cognitive processes: effects on perseveration and planning. Acta Psychologica. 2003;113:45–65
  110. Veltman DJ, Rombouts SA, Dolan RJ. Maintenance versus manipulation in verbal working memory revisited: an fMRI study. Neuroimage. 2003;18:247–256
  111. Verdoux H, Magnin E, Bourgeois M. Neuroleptic effects on neuropsychological test performance in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1995;14:133–139
  112. Vollema MG, Geurtsen GJ, van Voorst AJ. Durable improvements in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Research. 1995;16:209–215
  113. Volz HP, Gaser C, Hager F, Rzanny R, Mentzel HJ, Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, et al. Brain activation during cognitive stimulation with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test—a functional MRI study on healthy volunteers and schizophrenics. Psychiatry Research. 1997;75:145–157
  114. Voruganti LN, Heslegrave RJ, Awad AG. Neurocognitive correlates of positive and negative syndromes in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 1997;42:1066–1071
  115. Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Zec RF. Physiological dysfunction of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia: I. Regional cerebral blood flow evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1986;43:114–124
  116. Weinberger DR, Egan MF, Bertolino A, Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Lipska BK, et al. Prefrontal neurons and the genetics of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry. 2001;50:825–844
  117. Williamson PC, Kutcher SP, Cooper PW, Snow WG, Szalai JP, Kaye H, et al. Psychological, topographic EEG, and CT scan correlates of frontal lobe function in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. 1989;29:137–149
  118. Yacubian J, de Castro CC, Ometto M, Barbosa E, de Camargo CP, Tavares H, et al. 31P-spectroscopy of frontal lobe in schizophrenia: alterations in phospholipid and high-energy phosphate metabolism. Schizophrenia Research. 2002;58:117–122
  119. Young DA, Davila R, Scher H. Unawareness of illness and neuropsychological performance in chronic schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1993;10:117–124
  120. Young DA, Freyslinger MG. Scaffolded instruction and the remediation of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test deficits in chronic schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 1995;16:199–207

PII: S0165-1781(04)00210-0

doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2004.06.016

Psychiatry Research
Volume 129, Issue 2 , Pages 179-190 , 15 December 2004

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution